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Platonic Idealism
by Lord Egan, FCoS
[The author grants permission for individuals to post this Work on their websites, so long as nothing is altered.]
Idealism, the theory that reality is based on absolute truths (or forms) and not materialism, is one of the oldest systematic philosophies in western culture. Its origin dates back to Plato (427-347 B.C.E.), a student of Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.). Under his inspiration for challenging materialist convention, especially of Sophists, Plato developed idealism and greatly influenced the future of public education. Moreover, the
Greek philosopher Socrates' method of challenging the status quo of Greek citizens was through the dialectic question and answer approach that was done orally and not written down. After his execution in Athens for his beliefs, Plato interpreted and most likely added to some of these dialogues. Today, scholars usually refer to the ideas of both philosophers as Platonic philosophy. Since the time of ancient Greece, many philosophers have contributed to the development of idealism.
The following are three major areas: platonic idealism, religious idealism and modern idealism.
Platonic idealism consists of the philosophical, social and educational ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato. Being a disciple of Socrates, he believed in the Socratic dialectic method. This method can be seen in the Republic and the Laws, two of his famous works. After Socrates' death, he opened his own school, the Academy, in which he further developed idealism. The search for truth in all things through Socratic dialogue was the basis for the school.
The first principle and basis for platonic idealism is the concept of absolute truth. Plato taught that it is in all things. People should search for truth because it is eternal and perfect. He envisioned that since there are universal truths in mathematics (the concept of 2+2=4 was true before being discovered), then there must be the same in other fields such as politics, religion and education. Therefore, the search for absolute truth is the quest of the philosopher.
Being against materialism, he wrote about his second principle in the Republic. There is a separation between the world of ideas (or forms) and world of matter. Ideas has Good at its highest level which he believed was the source of all true knowledge. The world of matter was characterized as unstable, constantly changing sensory data that was untrustworthy. He taught that people should embrace ideas and reject matter to progress toward the Good.
This can be achieved through use of a dialectic, which is a critical debate by two mature citizens, at least 30 years old, with a well-rounded education. It begins with a thesis statement. Hopefully, it ends with an agreement or synthesis. This is done through open-mindedness and not with a selfish desire to win. It is also requires a firm grasp of subject knowledge and critical focus.
Plato thought the dialectic could be used to help people embrace ideas and become less materialistic. It could help people to use reason to reach universal truths waiting to be discovered in many fields. He believed it was the "dividing line" between the unpredictable world of the material and the uncharted, abstract world of ideas.
Concerning his philosophy on education, he held that people are born ignorant, living in a cave of shadows and illusions, chained by apathy. Those of us who break free and become enlightened have a duty to help the rest. The philosophers and educators in Greek society had a duty to raise the self-awareness of its people by helping the ignorant discover knowledge.
The third principle was that Plato believed knowledge wasn't created, but discovered. He once told that the human soul is born with true knowledge; however, it is lost when placed in a material body, which corrupts such knowledge (similar to Adam and Eve allegory). Consequently, people have a lifetime of work to recall these forgotten truths. Socrates illustrated a similar idea concerning undiscovered knowledge in his Doctrine of Reminiscence.
The kind of education Plato wanted was one where his students were encouraged to embrace his concept of the Good or the universal truths that already exist. Although most were materialists, who linked matter to reality, he wished to enlighten people to his idealist philosophy. Through such a plan, Plato could change society by creating outstanding role models like Socrates, who would be embraced by society, not killed or imprisoned. He wrote about this social vision in the Republic.
Although the rebellious Plato wanted to change society from practical to abstract thinking, he did have a conservative side. He wanted the state to take an active role in education and offer his curriculum of Idealist philosophy. Also, although he may have been the first to philosophize about art (paintings, sculpture, music, etc.), he felt it should be censored and regulated because it was an imitation of the material world and not reflective of true knowledge. He understood the range and power of art and wanted to censor it, so it would be portrayed in a more virtuous light. This, he claimed, would contribute to the educational process.
Plato saw a society where equal opportunity existed on all levels. Girls and boys could develop themselves to the fullest, but those who showed difficulty in abstract thinking should pursue careers that contribute to the practical realities of life, such as industry, business and military affairs. There would be three classes: workers, militia and rulers.
Those that demonstrated skill in the dialectic would become philosophers that would lead the state toward attaining the Good.
In Plato's political and educational plan, there would be students of differing ages and educational levels (the older, the higher the rank) and one of 50 or more years of age, male or female, who would be the philosopher-king. The responsibilities of this highest position would be to supervise the affairs of the state and see that wisdom is the ruling factor on all state levels. He or she would surrender all material possessions and devote themselves entirely to society's guidance and enlightenment.
In the end, Plato's utopian society never became a reality. He attempted to establish it under Dionysius II of Syracuse, but failed when the tyrant realized his plan. However, many of Plato's social and educational ideas have survived. His search for absolute truths has fostered great progress in almost every part of our lives including science, technology, religion and the arts. His idea of the "best" person to lead a state or institution captures the spirit of human progress in ancient Greece.
Today, we want the best or most qualified person to lead our institutions. His vision of a state educational system is now a reality. In schools, teachers utilize the dialectic with students to draw conclusions. And equal opportunity for all is a cornerstone of the American ethos today.
Religious Idealism came about because Platonic ideas exerted a considerable influence on Christianity.
Judaism, a precursor of Christianity, held many beliefs compatible with Idealism. There were many parallels such as the idea of one God as pure Spirit and the Universal Good. Many of the New Testament writers were influenced by Greek culture, which was spread across the Mediterranean world by Alexander the Great.
Founders of the Roman Catholic Church such as
Augustine (354-430 C.E.) were influenced by Idealism. He was born and reared under Hellenistic culture. After his conversion to Christianity, he described his early pagan life as debauchery. He connected the philosophy of Platonists and Neoplatonists with Christianity. For instance, he saw the World of Ideas as the City of God and the World of Matter as the City of Man. He interpreted the pagan idea of the Good as God and matter as man (evil).
Plato believed in absolute truth based on science and reason; Augustine believed in irrational faith in God. He also saw parallels with the ideas of rediscovery of knowledge (the fall of Adam), the origin of knowledge (God created it) and educational philosophy (worldly knowledge was wrong, faith over reason). He believed that faith based knowledge is determined by the church and all true knowledge came from God.
Religion and Idealism, especially Christianity, have been closely related. Christianity promotes the idea of God as transcendent and a pure Spirit or Idea. Also is the concept that he created the world from himself or out of the Spirit or Idea. This resembles the Platonic concept that reality is basically Idea.
Today one can see the tremendous influence religious Idealism has had on American education. Early Christians implemented the idea of systematic teaching, which was used consistently throughout new and established schools. Many Greek and Jewish ideas about the nature of humanity were taught. For centuries, the Christian church educated generations with Idealist philosophy.
Idealism and the Judeo-Christian religion were unified in European culture by the Middle Ages and thereafter. This could explain the similarities of both in modern thought. Plato considers reality to be the mind by way of Idea. Judeo-Christians consider the soul by way of God. This explains why the modern concepts of mind and soul are closely connected in fields such as psychology and health science.
During the rise of the scientific revolution in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, modern idealism developed and was largely identified with systematization and subjectivism. This is reflected in the writings of Rene Descartes, George Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, Georg W. F. Hegel and Josiah Royce.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) based his philosophical system on two idealist principles. His famous Cartesian first principle: Cogito, ergo sum, "I think, therefore I am," in which he could doubt all things except his own thinking supported idealist thought because it asserted the centrality of mind in regard to the human being in the world. The other is the Deity or foundation for all objects of thought. With the cogito he discovered an indubitable thought, but realized he couldn't move to other undubitables. Objects outside the cogito are based on the imperfect senses. Moreover, all ideas referred to other ideas.
He found it impossible to arrive at any idea, even the cogito, that did not refer to something other than itself. He felt he had solved these problems with the idea of Perfect Being. He thought he encountered God when he arrived with this idea. Thus, he named it the Deity.
George Berkeley (1685-1753) held that there was no existence without perception by the mind, but things may exist if perceived by God. Recall the classic question, does a tree falling in the forest make sound if no one hears it? Berkeley says no because there is no existence without perception, unless it is perceived by God. Thus, he was a religious man and like Plato, emphasized idealism over matter.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) emphasized ideas when he focused on human thought processes. He held that the rationalist thinks analytically (priori) and the empiricist thinks synthetically (posteriori). He created a logical system called synthetic a priori judgments.
With this system, he hoped to achieve valid human knowledge based on scientific laws of nature. He wanted to combine rationalist and empirical insights into one unified system. The rationalist sought universal truths or ideas and the empiricist believed in scientific and practical sensory experience. His system recognized both the need for the empirical approach and the rationalist need to find universal laws. The human self or mind with its thought processes was the basis for its success.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel (1770-1831) greatly influenced the course of modern idealism. There are three major aspects of his system: logic, nature and spirit.
With logic, he thought he perfected a system that corrected any faults in Aristotelian logic. He had a dialectic approach (thesis and antithesis=synthesis), but he conceived of thought as a continuum, not as a series of mechanical synthetic unions. It is characterized as a flowing and ever-changing process. Hegel felt that his logic would bring about absolute idea.
The second, nature, was the opposite of idea, the difference between value and fact. He did not hold idea and nature are separate; rather that nature is lower in reality and not the final synthesis.
The final system, called spirit, was the absolute spirit that manifested through fine works of art, religion and philosophy; however, he felt we never reach, but do make progress toward final absolute spirit.
Josiah Royce (1855-1916) was one of the most important spokespersons for Hegelian idealism at the beginning of the twentieth century in America. He believed that the external meaning of something depends entirely on its internal meaning or its "embodiment of purpose." This was the criterion of "mentality" and that the essence of anything is mental. Royce, like most idealists, drew many parallels between religious teachings (Christian is this case) and their own philosophical views. Moreover, he held that ideas are purposes or plans of action.
To act on ideas is the fulfillment of such. Ideas are idealized in the external world, which is meaningless without the fulfillment. Royce saw that the purpose of such ideas would be the Absolute's purpose (God). Similar to Hegel, he thought the most important things a person can develop are loyalty to moral principles and causes. The absolute purpose is to achieve the highest good by becoming part of the universal design.
Concerning my views about idealism, I agree and disagree with its principles. I believe that absolute truth exists, but only within the objective universe or nature. This is defined as that which exists without self-awareness. Natural law consists of many universal truths that are the basis for science, technology (applied science), mathematics and music. Since the beginning of time, these truths have been with us. This is the knowledge that has been and continues to be discovered.
Our thoughts, feelings and ideas comprise our subjective universe. This is the self-aware human psyche that creates knowledge from nature. This self-awareness is the difference between humans and all living things in nature such as animals. Still, we are part animal and human. We perceive ourselves via our ability for abstract thought this is how we define ourselves. Throughout civilization, we have created and defined politics, religion and education. These concepts came from human development and experimentation.
I feel the concept of the World of Ideas (Subjective Universe) versus the World of Matter (Objective Universe) is, of course, colored or slanted by one's own subjective perceptions and always will be! The Absolute Truth of the Universe will not elevate humanity it is the search for the ultimate truth that propels mankind the journey, not the destination. Plato wanted to discover true knowledge within his ancient Greek society. He wanted to move beyond the material using the dialectic as a reasoning tool to unlock the mysteries of his world. It is great men like this that have inspired other philosophers to advance their societies.
Regarding education, all public schools should reflect the Constitutional amendment of separation of church and state. I see a school system that is secular such as in ancient Greece, which supports the philosophy of humanism. The curriculum would emphasize reason, psychology and science as cornerstones to the search for self-realization. Reading, writing, foreign language, mathematics, social studies, and music are some of the subjects that would be offered.
There would be equal opportunity for all, of course, and character development would be based on some of the ideas of Kant. Children would be "enlightened," or taught not to just follow rules, but think according to principles. They would understand through disciple from parents and teachers, that their duties are "categorical imperatives" that are meant to help them develop patience, self-respect, social respect and identity.
This is the education of will mentioned by Kant.
Although I recognize that state schools exist, as a Libertarian I disagree with schools being state- controlled. The federal government shouldn't be involved in education at all. The Department of Education educates poorly. Private schools perform much better than public ones overall and are much less expensive to run. There are also too many discipline problems in public schools. Would Plato think we had gone beyond materialism if he had a glimpse of some of today's school metal detectors?
Finally, from a Christian context, I disagree with Augustine's parallels to Platonic philosophy. Considering the story of Adam and Eve, when she ate of the tree of knowledge after being tempted by Satan, she and Adam become self-aware. They disobeyed God and were pronounced sinners. God didn't create knowledge as Augustine claimed. It was Satan disguised as the serpent that enlightened Adam and Eve.
I perceive God, not as a monotheistic tyrant, but as nature, the All. The "forbidden fruit" is the enlightenment, the rejection of innocence - it is the Gift of Satan, the fire of Prometheus! We ever seek to "be as gods, knowing good and evil." The process of Becoming never ends. This spark of self-awareness enabled Plato to seek universal truths through abstract thinking. Augustine wanted to embrace both conformity to Yahweh and also progressive Platonic ideas.
The Christian god, who expelled Adam and Eve from Paradise, represents conformity to authority, slavish obedience (the ten commandments, the concept of "sin") and the Serpent represents free will, self-determination. The dialectic is a useful tool to explore and acquire new knowledge Augustine's choice of faith over reason defeats this purpose.
(c) 2000 Lord Egan
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