HISTORY 211; MODERN MEXICO SYLLABUS Description of the Course Latin American History 211 G will cover the evolution of Mexican history from Independence to the Present. The course will cover the political, economic, social and artistic development of Mexico in its rough course from the break with Spain to the troubled modern state. The internal developments of Mexico from independence to political maturity will be emphasized. Mexico's entanglements with her northern neighbor, the United States, in military conflicts, diplomatic conflicts and modern entanglements will be described. Grading Procedures 1. There will be four exams in the course. 2. Each exam is equal in terms of the final grade. 3. The final grade is calculated by averaging the test scores of the four tests in the course. 4. All tests will be long essay in form consisting of two essay questions to be answered by the student in complete detail. 5. The students will have lecture outlines for each topic with possible essay questions listed in advance for study. 6. Reading assignments in the text will be keyed to the lectures. 7. If a student misses more than three classes during the semester, this lack of attendance may be reflected in the final grade. If a student shows dramatic improvement after the first exam, this may result in a higher gradethan the four test average. 8. Make-up exams for each of the four tests will be given only once each time. Highest grade on a make-up exam is a C. Textbooks: Mexico; A Biography of Power by Enrique Krauze Fire and Blood by T.H. Fehrenbach My E-mail address is Topiltzin-2091@webtv.net I would rather have you E-mail me with questions or concerns than phoning me. Feel free to E-mail anytime.                                                                 Teacher: Mike Ruggeri Office: Social Science Department Room 1019 My office in the Department: 1023 Office Hours: 11:00-12:00 M-W 9:45-10:45 T-Th

History 211 Outline

1. The War for Independence: Hidalgo and Allende 2. Independence: Augustin Iturbide 3. The Mexican Republic Emerges 4. The Era of Santa Anna 5. War with the United States 6. Benito Juarez and Mexican Liberalism 7. The French Intervention 8. The War of the Reform and Benito Juarez Triumphant 9. The Porfiriato: Porfirio Diaz and the Modernization of Mexico 10. The Mexican Revolution: The Northern and Western Revolts 11. Stabilization of the Revolution under Carranza and Obregon 12. Plutarco Calles and the Emergence of the One-Party State. 13 Lazaro Cardenas: The Completion of the Revolution 14. The Post-Cardenas World in Mexico: Mexico in the Cold War 15. The Salinas and Zedillo Presidencies and the Breakdown of Mexico

The Wars for Independence

1. The"Enlightenment" versus the fear of race war and anarchy. 2. 1767: Jesuits expelled from Mexico. Land and wealth seized. Bourbons strike at fueros, tithes and loans. 3. 1804 Act of Consolidation: Churches charitable funds seized. Church must call in notes bankrupting many Criollos. Father Hidalgo and other criollos lose land and herds and mines. 4. 1808: Napoleon invades Spain. Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain. Ferdinand VII jailed. 5. Underground literature in New Spain: 1776 US War of Independence and 1789. 6. Who runs New Spain? Viceroy Iturrigaray allows a Criollo junta. 7. Sept. 15, 1808: Peninsulares counter-coup under sugar planter Yermo. Leading Criollos arrested. Pedro Garibay (age 80) the new junta leader. 8. Drought, corn prices sky rocket. Mining hit hard. 9. "Literary Clubs" form in Criollo controlled peripheral areas. No real revolution envisioned. Lower Criollos and upper Mestizos. No real bourgeoisie in Hispanic America. 10. The "Bajio" becomes the hotbed for plots. 11. Plot hatched in Queretaro: Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende, Juan de Aldama and others meet. 12. Miguel Hidalgo: Hacienda born, Jesuit trained, rector at Dolores. Questions celibacy, virgin birth, papal infallibility. Reads forbidden books, calls the king a tyrant, has a mistress. Tried in Inquisition court and escapes punishment, Teaches indios tile making, tanning, leather curing, wool weaving, vines and olives, silk production. Authorities destroy his work. 13. Plot hatched for December 8, 1810. It leaks. Corregidor Dominguez's wife Josefina ("La Corregidora") gets word of leak to Allende. Allende to Dolores. September 16: "Grito de Dolores." "Death to the Spanish," lies about Viceroy's intentions, pro-Catholic. 14. Territory of Guanajuato rises in rebellion. 15. The war begins: Atotonilco stop. Virgin of Guadeloupe banner. Recruits on the way to San Miguel. Indios start a bloodbath. Allende vs. Hidalgo. Repeat at Celaya. 12,000 at Guanajuato and resistance at the Alhondiga from Juan Antonio de Riano. Another blood-bath. 500 Spaniards and 2000 Indios die on September 28. Valladolid surrenders. Criollos withdrawing from Hidalgo. Zacatecas &San Luis Potosi fall.

16. Hidalgo tries to buy off Criollos, declares for Ferdinand VII, ends tribute, gives lands back. Church excommunicates Hidalgo. The North falls to rebels-San Luis Potosi, Saltillo, Nuevo Leon and Texas join Hidalgo revolt. 80,000 approach Mexico City. Viceroy Venegas sends General Felix Calleja against Hidalgo at Monte de las Cruces. Hidalgo hesitation and retreat to Toluca and Vallodolid. One half of army leaves. Guadalajara falls to Hidalgo. Hidalgo tries to establish a government. Terror regime. 17. General Felix Calleja counter-attacks in January 1811 at Battle of Calderon. Panic and Allende and Hidalgo flee north to U.S. 18. March, 1811: Allende and Hidalgo captured at Monclova, Coahuila. July 3, 1811: Allende, Aldama,Hidalgo executed. Hidalgo defrocked and tried before execution. Heads on pikes at Guanajuato. 19. Jose Maria Morelos takes command. Ignacio Rayon and the "National Supreme Junta" confuse the revolution. A muleteer then priest. New tactics of a trained army of 9000. Cuautla stronghold. Calleja attack and siege of 72 days. Morelos and men escape. Women and children slaughtered. Guerrilla war begins. Morelos, Tehuacan, Vallodolid, Taxco, Acapulco, and Veracruz. Mexico City encircled by 1813. 20. Congress of Chilpancingo called in Guerrero. Independence, negation of Spanish values, universal male suffrage, castes and slavery abolished, no government monopolies, Roman Catholic religion, open offices, no tribute or tithes. 21. Iturbide attacks Valladolid and wins victory over Morelos. Gen. Calleja returns to battle and takes back all. Delegates to Apatzingan. Morelos fired by Congress. Morelos captured in 1815 after diversion fails. 46 day inquisition. Executed on December 22, 1815. 22. Vicente Guerrero continues in Guerrero and Felix Fernandez (Guadeloupe Victoria) continues in Veracruz.

From Emperor to Anarchy

1. Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria continue the fight in Veracruz and Guerrero. 2. Ferdinand VII back. San Martin and Bolivar in general Latin American revolt 3. 1820: Rafael Riego coup in Spain. Orders to abolish fueros, local elections and press freedom. Close convents, seize Church lands. Criollos see end to forced loans, monopolies, Spaniards, but abolition of fueros and local elections troubling. 4. Augustin Iturbide fought against insurgents with great cruelty, steals silver and is dismissed. Ostentatious penance at Oaxaca monastery. Meets with high clerics and plots. Clerics get him command of army against Vicente Guerrero in Veracruz. He secretly negotiates with Guerrero. Steals 500,000 pieces of silver. Army deserts to Iturbide. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and Anastasio Bustamante join. Criollos united. Indios and Meztisos see opportunity. 5. Army of the Three Guarantees: (Church monopoly, Independence, Equality) and Plan de Iguala: Ferdinand VII, Catholic Church. 6. Juan O'Donoju mission. Treaty of Cordoba. A king to be chosen from Spain or Mexico. Ferdinand VII will not allow Spanish princes to be chosen.   Mexico independent: Sept. 27, 1821. 7. 1822-23: Mexico in economic ruin: Spanish trade gone, mines and farms destroyed, food prices soar, no silver to back currency capital flight huge. 80,000 man army with 40,000 officers. Peninsulares still run commerce and customs and high Church. Forced loans economy. International isolation. 8. Free trade, Spain rejects Treaty of Cordoba and begins plotting, Anglos invited into Texas. 9. Centralists: High clergy, wealthy, Positivists, royalists, officer corps. Corruption, superstition and dictatorship will be their legacy. Federalists: Hacendados, romantics, lower clergy and Crillos and upper Mestizos, collective past and indio heritage, anti-Western and anti-technology 10. Provisional junta of conservative Criollos name 5-man regency. 11. A newly elected rigged Congress cuts army, debates a Republic and says military officers can't be regents to attack Iturbide. Victoria and Bravo jailed. 12. Iturbide arranges May 18 demonstration and May 19th address to Congress with mob present. 13. Iturbide named emperor and promises Roman Catholic monopoly. Iturbide's allies the Church leaders and army. 14. Ridiculous pomp prevails. Iturbide's family get titles. Etiquette for kissing Iturbide's hand and kneeling before him. Iturbide's family birthday's are holidays. The Knights of Guadalupe established. 15. Honduras, Costa Rica revolt put down. 16. Iturbide wants U.S. recognition to settle Texas border dispute and gets trade with U.S., $10,000,000 loan. Imperial Colonization Law. 17. President Monroe receives Manuel Zozaya as ambassador and sends Joel Poinsett to Mexico. 18. Import taxes, sales taxes and new monopolies do not work. Army and bureaucracy and royalty must be paid. Forced church loan 19. Jobless veterans, congress, journalists attack. Iturbide closes liberal press. 20. August, 1822: Liberals arrested and protest grows. October 31: Iturbide dissolves Congress. 21. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna begins revolt. 22. Plan de Veracruz joined by Vicente Guerrero, Guadelope Victoria and Nicolas Bravo. 23. Revolt spreads and Iturbide abdicates and takes European exile after 10 month regime. 24. New army marches into Mexico City unopposed in March, 1823. 24. Iturbide too centralizing, forced loans, weakens North, antagonizes Church.

From Democracy to Santa Anna

1. Constitutional Congress meets in November, 1823. 2. Centralists: clergy, hacendados, army, church, pro-Spanish, pro-Protectionism, pro-Industry (brutal generals and caudillos with progresssive businessmen.) versus Federalists: liberals, mestizos, followers of American Revolution, French Revolution and Spanish Constitution of 1812. (but superstitious and Catholic indios on ejidos led by French style Mexican intellectuals). 3. The Constitution of 1824: Estados Unidos Mexicanos, Federal Republic of 19 states and four territories, 3 branches of government, bicameral legislature-Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Two Senators from each state and one deputy per 80,000 population. State legislatures elect the President and Vice President, Roman Catholic monopoly, emergency powers for the president, fueros and tithes intact, one term presidency. 4. Guadelope Victoria elected first president. Nicolas Bravo is the Vice President. 5. Rancor, discord, despair. British loans and investments. Army, hacendados, mine owners, Church intact. No revenue. Customs and monopolies, Capital flight, Spanish evicted in 1827, free trade, hacienda growth, high military budget. 6. Iturbide in Italy and England hears of Ferdinand VII plot to invade Mexico and offers services. 7. Congress passes law pronouncing death sentence on Iturbide if he returns. Iturbide lands on May, 1824, seized and shot in July of 1824. 8. Army kept at unaffordable 50,000 men and huge state bureaucracy and colonial debts assumed. Economic mess. Hacienda expansion one answer. Growth in lumber, coffee and cochineal exports. 9. 1827 revolt led by V.P. Nicolas Bravo. Revolt put down by Santa Ana and Vicente Guerrero. 10. September 1828 presidential elections: Conservative Manuel Gomez Pedraza wins 10 of 19 states to win election over liberal Vicente Guerrero. Liberals charge intimidation. Santa Anna rises on behalf of Guerrero. Mobs in Mexico City. Pedraza gives in and Guerrero becomes president. Conservative Carlos Maria Bustamante is Vice President. Pro-tariff, anti-slavery, income and property taxes raised. 11. Summer, 1829: Spaniards invade Mexico. 3000 Spanish troops invade from Cuba. Tampico evacuated. Heat, yellow fever, no water hamper Spanish. General Santa Anna attacks and is repulsed. Siege begins. Spanish General Isidro Barradas surrenders in October. Santa Anna again a hero.

12. Guerrero refuses to relinquish emergency powers. Bustamante rises in 1830, gets army backing and wins. Bustamante cuts army, press and Congress cowed. 13. Bustamante regime inept and corrupt and repressive. elections limited, press limited, moral codes, Church bolstered. Guerrero captured and shot after Bravo puts down his revolt. Lucas Alaman the brains. Reduces army size, British money, protectionism. 14. 1833-1855: Chaos and anarchy. 36 presidents, 7 1/2 months average term. Santa Anna takes over 11 times. 15. Santa Anna a Criollo who fought Hidalgo and joined Iturbide. 1823 Plan de Casa Mata overthrows Iturbide. Helps Guerrero put down Nicolas Bravo revolt, defeats Spanish at Tampico, throws out Bustamante. 16. 1833 elections: Santa Anna President and Liberal Valentin Gomez Farias is Vice President. 17. Santa Anna gets bored and turns Mexico over to Farias in 1833. 18. Farias reforms: reduces army, takes out military fueros, limits clergy sermons, secularizes education, closes University of Mexico, clerics now chosen by the government and not the Pope, mandatory tithe abrogated, priests and nuns could forswear vows, Franciscan missions in California closed and property and money seized. 19. Conservatives rise on "religion and fueros" platform. Santa Anna announces "holy war," denounces "atheists, Jacobins, Farias, federalists." Santa Anna back in charge. Congress closed. Reform laws repealed. 20. Zacatecas liberals revolt. Santa Ana crushes them. Zavala, Mora, Farias flee to U.S. 21. Santa Ana gives out 12,000 new commissions and turns vulgar.

The Loss of Empire

1. Texas population sparse. 2. 1821: Austin family concessions: Roman Catholics. Spanish the official language, no Anglos within 60 miles of border, cheap land 3. Colonists not Catholic or Spanish speaking. Texas run from Saltillo. 10 times as many Anglos. Mixed feelings on both sides. No priests sent. 4. 1830: Immigration stopped after Gen. Mier Y Teran mission. New military garrisons and Mexican population plans. Joel Poinsett offers to buy territory. British scheming against U.S. Mexican army mistreats Anglos. 5. Santa Anna annuls Constitution of 1824, establishes "Siete Leyes." and Constitution of 1836 and Lorenzo Zavala urges Texas independence. 6. 1832 revolt in Texas: David Burnet declared President of the Lone Star Republic. Zavala is Vice President. 7. Winter, 1835: Santa Anna moves North and arrives in March, 1836. The Battle of the Alamo won by Santa Anna. General Jose Urrea wins at Goliad. 365 Anglo prisoners shot. 8. Sam Houston leads Texans in counter-attack. Santa Anna captured on April 23 at San Jacinto. Two treaties signed by Santa Anna as prisoner. Texas given up to Rio Grande and secret treaty to convince Mexican government to accept peace mission. 9. Mexico refuses to honor treaties. Santa Anna forced out. Anastasio Bustamante president. 10. Lone Star Republic recognized by U.S. in 1837 but slavery issue holds up annexation. 11. 1838: "Pastry War": French demand 600,000 peso indemnity for 1828 incident. Blockade and invade Veracruz. Santa Anna attacks French and loses leg. Becomes hero. Bustamante has to promise 600,000 peso indemnity. 12. Gen. Urrea and Gomez Farias rise against Bustamante. Artillery war in Mexico City. Santa Anna joins rising and is now the "Napoleon of the West." Giant statue. Leg enshrined. 15 year old wife. 1843 Constitution gives Santa Anna supreme power. Santa Anna creates 12,000 new commissions and borrows at high rates. Customs duties at 60%. 13. 1844: Gen. Paredes rises and installs Gen. Herrera. Santa Anna's leg thrown away. Santa Anna to Havana.

14. Skirmishes in Texas. Herrera wants a buffer. Mexico owes big debt to U.S. Slidell mission to Mexico. U.S. will purchase New Mexico and California for $20 million. Paredes rises again anthrows out Herrera and Slidell. Monarchist plot by Paredes. Gomez Farias leads federalist revolt. 15. 1844 presidential elections in U.S. and Mexico. Santa Anna and Polk.. Texas annexed. Santa Anna domestic polices-protectionism and industrial policy. Currency reform. Moves against Yucatan. 16. Northern and Yucatan rebellions against Mexico. Herrera throws out Santa Anna and takes over. 17. 1846: General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande and fights General Aristo at Matamoros. War declared. Disease and bad generals for Anglos vs. indio troops and corrupt officers and bad artillery for Mexicans. 18. Gomez Farias ousts drunken Paredes, contacts Santa Anna in Cuban exile. Santa Anna conspires with Gringos and moves North with 20,000 men. Confiscates property and forced loan from Church. Yucatan neutral. Juan Alvarez runs Guerrero independently. 19. U.S. invades with 3 armies. Army of the West takes New Mexico and California easily. Army of the center under Zachary Taylor into the North. 20. Santa Anna at San Luis Potosi meets Zachary Taylor at Battle of Buena Vista and declares victory after draw and runs home. Throws out Farias. Installs Gen. Anaya. Northern Mexico lost. 21. Third U.S. Army of Occupation lands at Veracruz under General Winfield Scott and outflanks Mexicans. Santa Anna turns to Battle of Cerro Gordo and is outflanked. Puebla won't fight. 22. Mexico City braces for war but squabbles among themselves with the enemy at the door. 23. Battles in Mexico City lost after squabbles. September 13 battle at Chapultepec Castle lost by Mexicans. Ninos Heroes battle. War over. U.S. army occupies Mexico City. Guerrilla war begins in Veracruz. 24. February, 1848: Rump government at Queretaro signs Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Texas, California, New Mexico, Colorado lost. U.S. pays $15,000,000 and assumes $3,250,000 in debts. 25. Mexico loses half its territory. National humiliation, hatred of Yankees, true nationalism but continued revolts internally. Santa Anna exiled to Jamaica. 26. 1848-1850: Gen. Herrera serves 27. 1850-1853: Gen Arista serves. Lucas Alaman engineers Santa Anna comeback for one year. 28. 1853 Gadsen Purchase for $10,000,000 engineered by Santa Anna sells off Arizona and more of New Mexico. Santa Anna thrown out for last time in Revolution of Ayutla.

The Era of the Reform and the War of the Reform

1. 1848-53: Herrera-Arista regimes: military reduced, European debts paid, U.S. money pays internal debts. 2. Yucatan in flames, Sonora and Chihuahua raided, crime out of control. 3. Criollos and clergy want European monarchy. Federalist want clergy and army out. 4. 2nd generation of Reformistas: purist intellectuals, anti-clerical. Melchor Ocampo in Michoacan, Benito Juarez in Oaxaca. The Church still has fueros and 2/3 of land, all the money, gives nothing back. 5. Lucas Alaman plan: Santa Anna for one year and then monarchy. 6. Santa Anna's 11th return: "His Most Serene Highness.": extorted loans, sells Maya rebels to Cuban plantations, Gadsen Purchase: Southern New Mexico and Arizona sold to U.S. for $7 million. 7. Ocampo and Juarez flee to New Orleans and plot. Juan Alvarez and Ignacio Comonfort rise. The Plan de Ayutla puts Santa Anna out for last time after 7 months. Venezuela exile. 8. Juan Alvarez president, Benito Juarez at Justice, Lerdo de Tejada at Treasury. Reform begins; anti-clerical, free trade, secular education, civil liberties but anti-indigenous and elitist. Ties to US and low tariffs. 9. Ley Juarez: Fueros out. Rising put down. Alvarez resigns. Ignacio Comonfort now president. Ley Lerdo: Church property and civil property not in daily use seized. Ejidos included. Birth, death, marriage registries now civil. Cemeteries civil.     Ley Iglesia: All church fees for poor out. 10. Problems with Ley Lerdo: speculators, oppression of peons rises, haciendas explode with land and wealth, ejidos attacked, indios sink into apathy and alcohol and rebellion. Conservatives plot. Comonfort indecisive about Puebla archbishop and other matters. 11. Constitution of 1857: equality, free trade, lay schools, free press, speech, assembly, habeas corpus, bail, legal equality, church monopoly upheld, unicameral legislature. 12. All officeholders must sign an oath to the Constitution. 13. Church retaliates: excommunication threats, Bishops of Puebla and Mexico City and Pope Pius IX declare laws null and void. Civil servants must follow state or lose jobs. Soldiers wounded will not get care in Catholic hospitals. Priests suspended for giving sacraments to liberals. 14. 1858: Comonfort joins conservative rebels and General Felix Zuloaga pushed by army in Plan de Tacuba. Juarez jailed and freed by Comonfort. Arrested in Guadalajara and saved by Prieto. Gen. Felix Zuloaga seizes control. Juarez to Queretaro, Guadalajara, Panama and then Veracruz.

15. War of the Reform begins; two governments, constitutions, presidents. Zuloaga swears allegiance to the pope. Juarez issues manifestoes. Santos Degollado fights in Jalisco. 16. Conservative generals Miramon, Mejias, Marquez win early battles. Spanish dabble. Miramon's attack on Veracruz loses to Yellow Fever. Degollado crushed at Chapultepec by Marquez. 17. Veracruz Decrees: separation of Church and State, monastic orders banned, secular cemeteries, civil registries, no processions, no church costumes allowed, no church bells, no nuns, no tithes, books burned. 18. Robert McLane in Veracruz. U.S. seizes ships of Miramon from Cuba. U.S. wants Baja and transit rights. 1859 McLane-Ocampo Treaty rejected by U.S. Senate. U.S. arms flowing to Juarez. Mon-Almonte Treaty in Mexico city sells out to Spain. 19. Ignacio Zaragoza and Jesus Gonzalez Ortega beat Marquez at Silao. Porfirio Diaz takes Oaxaca for Liberals. Miramon defeated by Ortega in Guadalajara and Tlaxcala. U.S. intercepts ships from Cuba. Brutality on both sides. 20. Liberals march into Mexico City on January 1, 1861. Juarez enters on January 11. Juarez is president and is elected in March to that office. 21. Miramon escapes to Spanish ship. Marquez in guerrilla war in Guerrero kills Ocampo and others. 22. Juarez amnesty. Bishops exiled. Spanish ambassador thrown out. Mexico in destruction. 23. Principle finally wins. Professional generals scattered. Mestizo victory. Church demoralized.

France in Mexico

France in Mexico and the Benito Juarez Era 1. Mexico in desolation after War of the Reform, bankrupt. Army and civil servants not paid. Church property sale not enough to help. Commerce stagnant. 2. March, 1861. Juarez elected President. Amnesty for most conservatives. Bishops of Puebla and Mexico City exiled. Melchor Ocampo resigns and is killed by Marquez. Degollado defeated by Marquez. Juarez sends huge army against him. 3. Europeans want their money. Miramon, Marquez stealing British money. Juarez declares 2-Year debt moratorium. 4. Britain, France and Spain want payment for wrecked legations and stolen silver shipments. 5. Convention of London signed. Joint occupation of Veracruz, July, 1862. Customs house will be seized and collected till debt is paid. 6. France under Louis Napoleon III wants a Mexican Empire to add to Indochina, West Africa, Lebanon. Civil War in U.S. The Pope schemes. 7. January, 1862: European troops land in Veracruz. Yellow fever and deal to move inland. France showshand. Spain and Britain withdraw. 8. Conservatives tell French they will be welcome in Mexico City and bishops will give a Te Deum. 9. Lorencez attacks at Puebla. General Ignacio Zaragoza defends Mexico on May 5, 1862. 10. Napoleon sends 30,000 more troops to Mexico in 1863. Zaragoza dies. Jesus Gonzales Ortega takes over army. French bombard Puebla and lay siege. Ortega surrenders after 2 months. Porfirio Diaz and Ortega captured and escape. Supplies interdicted. 11. Juarez leaves Mexico City on May 31, 1863 to San Luis Potosi. French enter Mexico City and Te Deum is given. Juarez in San Luis Potosi. Indios join French and attack Juarez troops. Indio pueblos burned. 12. French Commander Bazaine picks a conservative committee of 35 notables and a 3-man Mexican juntaand they chooses Archduke of Austria Maximilian as the new Mexican emperor. 13 Maximilian signs Convention of Miramar with Napoleon. All expenses of French troops will be paid. 20,000 French troops to stay until 1863. Maximilian is commander of French troops. Mexican debt now tripled. Plebiscite must be held. 14. May, 1864: Maximilian and Carlota arrive in Veracruz and nobody welcomes them. 15. They travel to Puebla and Mexico City and conservatives put on a welcoming party and a Te Deum at the Basilica of Guadalupe.

16. Maximilian tours Mexico and tries to fit in. Honesty and efficiency reigns. He declares amnesty and free press. Talks Spanish. Eats Mexican food and wears Mexican clothes. Visits Hidalgo. 17. Archbishop Labastida pays a call to get all Church property back, repeal of reform laws, control of schools and Catholic monopoly and is rebuffed. Napoleon levies a forced loan on the Church. Maximilian outlaws debt peonage, distributes food to the poor builds Veracruz-Mexico City railroad, Chapultepec Castle, trade with Europe triples but French debt crushing. 18. Juarez chased to Chihuahua City and then El Paso del Norte. Guerrilla war begins. 19. Bazaine defeats Porfirio Diaz in Oaxaca and Maximilian is wrongly told that Juarez has left Mexico and has given up. 20. Maximilian announces death decree against hold-outs and carries it out. 21. Juarez asks President Lincoln for help but Civil War in U.S. Juaristas get army from California. Civil War in US ends and US army assembles on the Rio Grande. 22. Napoleon III threatened by Bismarck of Prussia and must withdraw troops. Maximilian sends envoys to remind Napoleon of Convention of Miramar but envoys ignored. 23. Carlota visits Napoleon to no avail. Visits Pope Pius IX and goes crazy. 24. 1866; General Luis Terrazas takes Chihuahua City and General Escobedo takes Monterrey, Saltillo, Guadalajara. Diaz takes back Oaxaca and then Puebla. Maximilian commits to stay. 25. 100 day siege of Queretaro begins in February, 1867. Maximilian surrenders to Escobedo and Juarez decides on execution despite international appeals. June 19, 1867; Maximilian, Miramon and Mejias shot. Marquez escapes to Cuba. 26. Liberalism triumphant. Church and conservatives disgraced and Mexico a shambles. 50,000 Mexicans have died in this war. 27. 1867: Juarez elected again defeating Porfirio Diaz. Criollos still have wealth and so do foreigners. Caciques run the periphery. 28. British build Veracruz railroad. New educational system. 5000 public schools built. 300,000 out of 9 million in school. Juarez rigs, stuffs, conspires Mexican style. 60,000 veterans released with no pension and the great age of banditry begins. Rurales formed. Juarez takes back pay of 200,000 pesos, caste wars in Chiapas and the Yucatan, no tax reform, internal tariffs crippling, Juarez rigs state elections. 29. 1871: Benito Juarez runs for third time. Porfirio Diaz and Lerdo de Tejada run against him. Congress picks Juarez. Revolt By Porfirio Diaz put down by General Rocha. 30. July, 1872: Juarez heart attack and death. Lerdo de Tejada succeeds. Lerdo is cold and elitist. Won't allow Northern rails to be connected. Porfirio Diaz in U.S. plotting. The Age of Positivism begins. Comte and Gabino Barreda. 31. 1875: Plan de Tuxtepec: Porfirio Diaz rises with U.S. help. Escobedo defeats him. He goes to Havana, Veracruz and Oaxaca. 32. 1876: Lerdo de Tejeda re-elected. Diaz calls for "no re-election." Supreme Court voids it. Diaz moves on Tlaxcala and wins and takes Mexico.

The Regime of Porfirio Diaz;
the "Porfiriato"

1. Mines are still not fixed and no new geological undertakings for years. Agriculture was primitive, no fertilizers or machinery, no cattle breeding, no telegraphs, docks on both coasts in bad shape, banditry in the country, high infant mortality, no sanitation systems, yellow fever. 2. Porfirio Diaz wants stability and order to attract investments to change Mexico. Federal troops used to crush local rebellions. 3. 800 rurales added. Diaz restores order and begins to be recognized by European governments. 4. Bandits and Indians raiding U.S., stealing cattle. Tensions as Diaz will not allow U.S. troops to pursue them into Mexico. 23 incursions by U.S. anyway. 1877 war scare and then Diaz polices border. President Hayes recognizes Diaz in 1877. Rurales justice. The Apaches and Yaquis. 5. Diaz reduces his salary and reduces others salaries and eliminates thousands of bureaucrats and attacks smuggling with heavy sentences. 6. Porfirio Diaz backs Manuel Gonzalez for president in 1880 and Gonzalez wins. 7. Gonzalez begins new rail lines, steamship lines, gives rail subsidies to U.S. (Diaz promises fulfilled) and Britain to build them, is overextended and stops government salaries to pay foreign debts and subsidies. Graft and corruption return. New copper, lead, zinc mining. Owned by U.S. 8. Diaz builds a machine and returns in the 1884 elections and stays till 1911. 9. Steam, water, electricity, telephones, telegraphs, cables, tramways, drainage, public buildings. 10. Jose Limantour, at the Treasury, eliminates duties and gets good loans and moves on dishonesty and balances budget. Huge investment from Europe and U.S. 11. 1.224 mile rail line to El Paso from Mexico City. Line to Laredo is 800 miles long. British and U.S.engineers. Lines to the Pacific and Arizona and a wasteful Tehuantepec rail line due to Panama Canal. 15,000 miles built by 1911. 80% of the financing from the U.S. By 1908, Diaz buys control of many lines. 12. Ruthless economic progress, laissez-faire capitalism, regeneration by foreign capital, resource exploitation. Water federalized and diverted to wealthy haciendas. Press subsidized. Guggenheims control mining. US and Europe controls oil, International Harvester controls the Yucatan, US owns phone company. 25% of land owned by foreigners, Germans in Chaipas cotton, Spain in Oaxaca tobacco and US rubber plantations on the Gulf. Ruthless exploitation of Mexican labor. 13. Haciendas and foreign plantations buy up all land for new beef, sugar, cotton, sisal, fruit farming. 14. Juarez style of governance; balancing forces of military, politicians. 15. Middle Class government jobs, conservation efforts, foreign immigration open to "improve" the population. Diaz whitens skin and employs only Caucasian servants. Women make progress in teaching, offices, industrial jobs. 16. Teachers numbers increase, primary schools doubled to 10,000, 31% in school, literacy rates up but all in urban areas. Rural areas neglected. 17. Church-State relations: Juarez reform laws stay but modus vivendi established. 18. Jose Limantour at Treasury opens banking to foreign ownership. Bank capital to foreigners. Tax system hits middle class businessmen and professionals. Hacendados and industrialists pay nothing. High tariffs on industrial imports.

19. Cientificos, Positivism, Comte, Social Darwinism 20. Cities linked to rural areas, raw materials move in and finished products out, expanded market now happens, ports rebuilt, agriculture now specializes due to ability to reach wider market, obtain equipment faster and cheaper, prices drop, foreign trade quadruples. Land values rise. Morelos sugar industry, textile industry grows, foreign investors rebuild mines, new machinery and techniques brings more gold and silver. Copper, lumber, ranching industries grow. Tobacco, fruit, coffee plantations, huge cattle ranches. 21. Oil drilling in Veracruz and big oil finds. Carta Blanca beer produced. Boom in Monterrey in cement, textiles, cigarettes, cigars, soap, bricks, furniture. 22. Tampico redesigned by U.S. as is Mazatlan and Manzanillo. 10 docks on the Atlantic and 14 on the Pacific . 23. Economic boom, dynamism, no civil wars, no liberal-conservative controversies, no church-state fights. 24. The officer corps is professionalized. Observers sent to St. Cyr and West Point. Chapultepec Academy upgraded. Army reduced The Costs of the Porfiriato 1. Diaz utilizes brute force and intimidation. Sham elections, censorship, jails and exiles critics, kills some. 2. Army commanders frequently shifted, state governors given other posts. Nephew Felix sent to Chile. 3. Businesses that support state policy given concessions and advance information. Commanders given gambling concessions. 4. Rurales used as counterpoint to army. 2,700 rurales guard ore shipments, payrolls, buildings etc. 5. Rurales used to put down disorders to keep army commanders from gaining steam. Military leaders take governors seats in sham elections. "Ley de fuga" and "five fingers or five bullets." 6. one-fourth of the budget spent on military. Economic development requires order. 7. The cientificos: Secretary of the Treasury Limantour a Social Darwinist on the Indian question. 8. 50% work on haciendas. Terrazas-Creel clan has 50 haciendas, 7,000,000 acres, 500,000 cattle, 250,000 sheep. 25,000 horses, 5000 mules, textile mills, granaries, railroads, sugar mills, meat-packing. 9. Mexican nationals paid less than foreigners for same work in Mexico. All the foremen and managers are foreigners.

10. Wages go down, prices go up for food staples, 7-day work weeks, script for pay, company stores (tienda de raya) overcharge, give credit easily at high rates, indebtedness of peons enslaves them, debts inherited. Marriages and funerals costly. Fines and fiesta costs heavy, punishments common and rape. Peons live in shacks with dirt floors and no protein and 25% infant mortality. 11. Industrial slums, concentrations of wealth and ownership. Still no wide bourgeoisie. 12. One Emiliano Zapata protests and is conscripted. 1 million families dispossessed. Food production below 400 years ago. Wheat and maize had to be bought with foreign exchange. 75% illiterate. 13. Foreigners paid no taxes and shared no profits. Anglo managers in Mexico. Middle class alienated Rich sent sons to Harvard and Europe. 14. Juarez anti-church laws relaxed. Catholic schools return. 15. 1, 150,000 Whites, 8 million Mestizos, 6 million indios in 1910. 16. Diaz sealed off from reality. No trickle down effect, costs of modernization too great.