The Dynamic, Kinetic Theory of Gravitation-Updated / 2008
This Dynamic, Kinetic Theory of Gravitation postulates that the aether is endowed with vast intrinsic energy in the form of waves propagated continually in every conceivable direction, so that the wave energy is isotropic. The belief expressed is that all energy is primarily energy of the aether.
To aid in forming a mental picture of the relation of the very high-frequency ether waves postulated as the cause of gravitation, to other well-known classes of aether waves, I have prepared the chart of ether-wave frequencies shown in < Figure 1.
Each horizontal line in the scale of frequencies represents double the frequency of the line below it, or half the frequency of the line above it.
Thus the scale of frequency increases upward by octaves as in music. Starting at the bottom of the scale with a frequency of one ether wave per second, the second line four waves per second, the third line eight waves per second, and so on to the tenth doubling where we get a frequency of 1,024 waves per second as shown.
Continuing the doubling process another ten times we get a frequency of 1,024 time 1,024, or 1,024 to the second power, and so on up the scale to the third, fourth, and fifth, etc., powers of 1,024.
Thus it is seen that the indicated wave frequency increases with great rapidity as we ascend the scale. At the 20th octave it is more than a million per second; at the 40th octave more than a million million waves per second.
I am indebted to a chart shown at the British Exposition in 1925; to a chart by G.L. Clark in 1927, and to a chart by W.E. Deming in 1929 for much of the material shown in my chart. But I have arranged it somewhat differently, emphasizing ether-wave frequency rather than wavelength.
The very high-frequency ether waves, which embody most of the ether's intrinsic energy, pass freely through matter without obstruction except that concerned in gravitation, and a very small heating effect (which will be explained later).
The ether waves exert motive action on atoms or particles of matter whereby the latter are buffered about in all directions with some absorption of ethereal energy.
Thus a lump of matter casts a spherical energy shadow into space, the depth of shadow diminishing with the square of the distance from its origin. The energy shadows of two or more bodies interblend, so that energy density between them is less than elsewhere, and they are pushed toward each other by the superior wave energy from directions beyond them.
My paper in the Electrical Experimenter, Feb. 1919 goes into this more fully.
Let us assume, then, that the aether is endowed with very great kinetic energy normally uniform in distribution.
Kinetic energy implies motion of something possessed of inertia. Now, inertia is a fundamental attribute of the aether. The aether is highly elastic also, which, with its inertia, enables it to possess kinetic energy in wave form, as exemplified in radiation.
By the term wave, I mean progressive motion locally periodic; doubtless the aether as a whole is stationary. Hence we may consider the kinetic energy of the aether as consisting in aether waves of some kind. These waves, vast in aggregate energy, eternal in persistence, without finite source or destination, are imagined as being propagated in straight lines in every conceivable direction.
The isotropic distribution of kinetic energy, essential to my theory of gravitation, was, for me, a difficult conception until I reflected that isotropic radiant energy is approximately realized in the interior of any furnace with uniformly heated walls.
Any kind of waves capable of exerting motive action on the atoms or molecules of matter will fulfill the requirements; but I shall first consider the transverse, electromagnetic waves of radiation, because these are the kind of aether waves we are familiar with.
Of course, intrinsic aether waves, if of the radiation kind, cannot be of any frequency at present known to us as radiation, because then all bodies would become heated. But we can easily imagine them of such extremely low frequency that the molecules or atoms of matter cannot respond to them -- cannot vibrate in unison with them -- molecular resonance cannot be established; hence no conversion of the aether's energy directly into heat in the ordinary way can take place.
We are familiar with the dissipation or degeneration of the higher forms of energy into heat, and the continual degradation of heat to lower degree; that is to say, less violent molecular vibration and more general distribution. As is well known, it is only through this degradation or running down of natural energy that we are enabled to utilize some of it. Lord Kelvin called this function of energy "motivity" (we now call it entropy), and said the motivity of the universe tends to zero.
We know that ordinary radiation waves in the aether persist indefinitely and without change of frequency or direction until they encounter matter, when they are absorbed and converted into heat, only to be radiated again, usually in longer waves, to some cooler body.
This degradation of wave frequency continues until we can no longer follow it. I beg to suggest and inform, that the ultimate destination of this wave energy is that vast reservoir of kinetic energy intrinsic to the aether,
We may liken the waves of radiant energy, which we apprehend as light and heat, to wind ripples on the surface of water, which continually degenerate in wave frequency until they are absorbed into and become part of a mighty swell of the ocean.
Thus we may, perhaps, regard the aether's intrinsic energy as energy in its lowest form -- Kelvin's ab. zero of "motivity". But unfortunately we may, and do, get some of this energy back in available form in many ways, as, for instance, when a falling body is arrested and develops heat; some of our wind ripples are then returned to us.
When two gigantic astronomical bodies collide under the influence of gravitation, as sometimes happens, we witness in far distant space the birth of a nebula. The inconceivably vast amount of heat developed by the collision converts both bodies into luminous vapor (plasma), which expands with incredible rapidity into the nebulous cloud.
This heat energy must in course of time degenerate back into the aether whence it came, though billions of years may be required; and during all this time the energy has"motivity". We may picture the stupendous result of the collision as only a local splash in the aether's mighty ocean of energy.
Frequency is converted into wavelength by dividing the velocity of light per second by frequency of the waves per second. Thus the frequency 1 at the bottom of the chart means one wave per second, and its wavelength is the distance it would travel in one second, before another wave started after it. This is the velocity of light, about 186,000 miles, or about 300,000 kilometers.
All ether waves travel at the same velocity. A wave train of this very low frequency and very great wavelength could easily be launched into the ether by revolving a closed coil of wire on its own diameter as an axis, in a magnetic field, at the rate of one revolution per second. If we should increase its revolutions to ten per second, we would get a frequency of ten, and a wavelength of 18,600 miles. Such mechanically generated electric ether waves may be increased in frequency without much difficulty as far up as shown in the chart.
Next above we have Hertzian waves, covering about 28 octaves, generated by the condensor and sparkgap method. The upper half of of this long range of ether waves contains the waves used in radio transmissions, Tv , and space.
Next above the Hertzian waves, of higher and higher frequency and shorter and shorter wavelength, we find the infrared and heat waves covering about 9 octaves. These waves embody most of the heat received from the sun, and nearly all the heat radiated from hot bodies below redness.
Then we come to the exceedingly interesting and intensively studied light waves or rays. These cover barely one octave of the scale, and their mean frequency is about 500 million million waves per second. It seems unfortunate that the human eye is sensitive to such a short range of ether vibrations only, while the human ear can perceive about 11 octaves of sound, or air vibrations.
Perhaps some animals or insects have a wider range of vision than humans.
Above the light waves we find about 5 octaves of ultraviolet waves. The sun's radiation includes the last three classes of waves, though some of the ultraviolet is absorbed by our atmosphere and does not reach the earth.
The ultraviolet rays or waves promote chemical action and are chiefly responsible for the ordinary photographic image.
Next in the growing range of frequency we have the well-known x-rays, so extensively used in x-ray photography for therapeutic and industrial purposes. These cover a long range of octaves in our chart, and overlap the upper part of the ultraviolet range and the lower part of the gamma range. X-rays, particularly those of the highest frequencies, pass rather freely through large thicknesses of light substances such as wood, fabric, animal tissue and metals of low atomic weight and density; but metals of large density and high atomic weight absorb and obstruct them greatly.
Thus a quarter inch of lead almost completely stops x-rays of the highest frequency. The ability of x-rays to pass deeply into or through matter, is called "penetrating power".
Above the x-rays in our chart are the gamma rays of radium, so extensively used in therapy. These have a much greater penetrating power than the highest-frequency x-rays.
All the above described classes of ether waves have been demonstrated experimentally, and doubtless all exist to some extent, permanently in the ether of space. Particularly is this true of the heat waves, as I pointed out in my 1927 paper (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. LXVI, 1927).
In that paper I showed, conclusively I think, that a lump of matter far out in inter-stellar space could not possibly fall to absolute zero by temperature radiation of all its heat, as commonly supposed, but would soon acquire and then maintain the "temperature of space" which I estimated to be something like 2.8K above absolute zero, that allows for molecular motion, and matter to exist in general, at this slight thermic, lower boundary condition, above Ab.0°.
Above the gamma rays there are about 6 octaves which have not been explored experimentally.
Then we come to the cosmic rays, so ably demonstrated and studied by Dr. Millikan. These cover considerably less than one octave, and their mean frequency is about 5,000 million million million waves per second.
This is 10 million times greater frequency than light waves possess; and yet there can be no doubt that cosmic rays are ether waves like all the rest. As might be expected, cosmic waves, on account of their very much higher frequency (shorter wave length), have far greater penetrating power than the highest-frequency x-rays; in fact, about 300 times greater, as they pass through 6 feet of lead..
Starting considerably above cosmic rays in the chart, I have drawn a long bracket with indeterminate ends. Somewhere in this region lie the isotropic ether waves of gravitation, probably having considerable range of frequency. The enormous frequency of these waves enables them to pass freely through all kinds of matter without obstruction except that concerned in gravitation.
Probably most of the vast intrinsic energy of the ether lies in the region of the gravitation waves.
Until about a year and a half ago, we had no experimental evidence of the gravitation waves other than gravitation itself. But gravitation is a most impressive demonstration of the ether waves which cause it, and of the very great energy embodied in them.
As illustrating both ponts, I call attention to Lord Kelvin's graphic word-picture of collision of two large astronomical bodies under the influence of their mutual gravitational attraction, which I have quoted in my 1914 paper and my 1926 paper.
As another illustration of the enormous differential ether-wave push of astronomical bodies toward each other, let us consider the case of the earth and moon. The urge toward each other is commonly called gravitational attraction, which is only another way of looking at it.
If this attraction were absent, and the moon were held in her orbit by a weightless steel cable, the cable would need to be about 500 miles in diameter to stand the strain. Between the earth and sun, the cable must be about 6,000 miles in diameter. And the attraction (push toward each other) of the components of some double stars must be thousands of times greater than this.
Obviously, the ether waves of gravitation, and the other classes of waves we have discussed, must be permanent attributes of the ether; they cannot escape from either boundless or bounded space.
They must fill all space; and we may therefore regard gravitation as a property of space, because wherever there are two or more particles or bodies of mater, however small or large, however near or distant, they are urged toward each other by the ever-present isotropic ether waves of gravitation.
Very high up in the chart I have tentatively drawn the line marked "Quanta waves or rays", indicating a frequency of 6.54 x 10^27, rigid, but elastic and dense to electromagnetic waves,
To sum it up, "There is No Energy in Matter, Except from the Environment" - Nick